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In understanding process, we follow a way that is from sounds and images to meanings. In oral or written forms, this way is from meanings to sounds and images. Perception is based upon analysis, recall and memorization. Usage is related to synthesis and reproduction. In language learning, perception must precede using the language. If the studies are directed to writing in the target language, learning should take place from a word in the source language to its equivalent in the target language; if directed to reading, this should happen from a word in the target language to its equivalent in the source language.
Researches about memory have shown that words are memorized by connotations. There is also a close relationship between recognizing a word in different texts and using it sufficiently. Therefore, to comprehend the word, it should be put in the middle of a firm network of connotations knitted by preliminary knowledge.
Words in our memory are in a relationship with each other not only in the viewpoint of sound, part of speech and meaning but also in the viewpoint of “shape”. We link the words alike in our memory. This link also exists among the words in a text. Coherence, that is the relationship between the concepts, reinforces the connection of meaning. For that reason, reading on a specific subject systematically, that is to say directed to a specific aim, increases the knowledge of vocabulary.
Fries, a linguist, divides knowledge of vocabulary into four:
1. Fundamental words necessary for recognition the structure of the language.
2. Words necessary for forming new words.
3. Words necessary for recognition while reading or listening.
4. Words necessary for special.
Essential points that must be focused on in choosing words for memorizing can be summarized as:
1. Frequency
2. Extensivity
3. Usability
4. Suitability for learning
Continuous listening and reading are the best ways to increase the knowledge of vocabulary. In more contexts you meet a new word the more it is easy to digest it. However, it is possible to make use of some methods before proceeding into this condense reading phase.
You can find the most appropriate method for you trying the ones about memorizing words below:
a. Try to use the newly learned word not only in one sentence but also in a context formed by several sentences. You may use some new words together and even write a short story with them. So, the number of links in your “network of connotations” will be increased. This network of connotations is very important in improving the talent of communication.
People think with the help of frames of concepts. For instance, there is a mental frame of Lincoln in an American’s mind, and inside the frame are full of information piles. As an example, pronoun “he” is used when he’s mentioned for that he’s male, he was the sixteenth president, he was assassinated and killed, etc. These piles of information differ accordingly with experiences. The frames in a new student’s mind are not full at the beginning. Then, as the experiences increase, the frames get filled. These frames are not in an order as one after the other, but they are in a complex network. This complex network, formed by the frames of concepts in relationships, plays a great role in comprehending the multi-directional and delicate meanings in texts.
b. Record the words and their meanings on a cassette and listen to them.
c. Write the difficult words in another color so that it draws your attention.
d. One of the biggest problems of vocabulary is memorizing the abstract words. Therefore, start with the concrete ones.
e. Make use of the words borrowed from the target language. (e.g. system, method, information etc.). But be careful with the change of meaning on some words.
f. Try to remember the words with the resemblance of the sounds with your native language.
g. Memorize the words dividing them into classes. (e. g. colors, fruits, vegetables, etc.)
h. The connotations increase if you memorize the words that are similar in written forms together. (e.g. stationary - stationery)
i. You can use some mnemonics while memorizing words. E.g. in the above-mentioned example, “stationary” is an adjective. The only difference between the two words is on the last third letter. The one with this last third letter “a” is the adjective. (That is “stationary”)
j. Words starting with the same letters (or sounds) can be memorized together (e.g. when, which, who, where, what, etc.)
k. Remembering becomes easy if a relationship is established between the word and its physical attributes such as color, sound, smell, etc. (E.g. fruits)
l. Some other relationships such as the words and their functions are also useful. (E.g. furniture that is used for sitting, sleeping, etc.)
m. Memorizing the words with their pronunciation makes remembering easy.
n. Words with the same roots can be memorized together. (E.g. white, whiten, whitish)
o. Connections between the words and the texts can be established.
p. Practicing on texts with some words excluded, guessing the words not written or written partly are also good study for learning the words in context.
The elements causing connotations between words can be ordered as:
a. Synonyms (e.g. flower = blossom)
b. Antonyms (e.g. wet X dry)
c. Classifying as sub-groups (plant > rose)
d. Classifying as upper-groups (spinach < vegetable)
Or: Some other links may be organized between a word against two words.
giving X receiving = taking
old X new = young
good X bad = poor
Elements helpful for guessing the meanings from the context are:
a. Title: Calls up the words related to the subject since it determines the subject
b. Repetition: It is easy to guess the meaning of the word that is repeated in different sentences.
c. Logical correlation: To guess the meaning of a word you can look for logical correlations such as the cause and result relations of the word with the other words.
d. Definitions
e. Examples
f. Similarities
g. Synonym and antonyms
h. Summary: The summary of a text may have clues about meanings of words since it’s a repetition in a sense.
2. Pronunciation
a. Repeat a word carefully after hearing it.
b. Record your own voice on a cassette and compare it with a native speaker.
c. Try to say a sound first on its own, then in words or even in tongue twisters.
d. Make a list of “difficult” words for you and study them more carefully.
e. Choose a dictionary and try to get familiar with its transcription system.
3. Grammar
a. Decide on which areas are you successful at, such as changing the tenses of sentences, filling in the blanks, translations, answering the questions, writing a composition etc.
b. Use the tenses not in different sentences but in the same one.
c. Make sure if you are good at oral or written exercises.
d. Decide if an exercise is more useful with rules given beforehand or after.
e. You can notice the exceptions if you put every new grammar rule into an empty grammar table in an orderly fashion. Do not forget to add extra information for unclear points while repeating.
Basic Skills
1. Listening
One learns to understand and speak the target language imitating and listening to a native speaker. Listening to the target language not only improves your reasoning but also helps your pronunciation and speaking.
Choose the listening material according to your aim. If you have started recently you may improve your memory by listening to the cassettes of a text and your pronunciation by repeating what you listen to. Further on, you may increase your perception, grammar and vocabulary by listening to cassettes of conferences, stories and interviews.
The obstacles while listening to something in the target language are:
a. Not being able to remember the long texts
b. Fast speaking of native speakers
c. Unknown vocabulary
Researches about memory have shown that words are memorized by connotations. There is also a close relationship between recognizing a word in different texts and using it sufficiently. Therefore, to comprehend the word, it should be put in the middle of a firm network of connotations knitted by preliminary knowledge.
Words in our memory are in a relationship with each other not only in the viewpoint of sound, part of speech and meaning but also in the viewpoint of “shape”. We link the words alike in our memory. This link also exists among the words in a text. Coherence, that is the relationship between the concepts, reinforces the connection of meaning. For that reason, reading on a specific subject systematically, that is to say directed to a specific aim, increases the knowledge of vocabulary.
Fries, a linguist, divides knowledge of vocabulary into four:
1. Fundamental words necessary for recognition the structure of the language.
2. Words necessary for forming new words.
3. Words necessary for recognition while reading or listening.
4. Words necessary for special.
Essential points that must be focused on in choosing words for memorizing can be summarized as:
1. Frequency
2. Extensivity
3. Usability
4. Suitability for learning
Continuous listening and reading are the best ways to increase the knowledge of vocabulary. In more contexts you meet a new word the more it is easy to digest it. However, it is possible to make use of some methods before proceeding into this condense reading phase.
You can find the most appropriate method for you trying the ones about memorizing words below:
a. Try to use the newly learned word not only in one sentence but also in a context formed by several sentences. You may use some new words together and even write a short story with them. So, the number of links in your “network of connotations” will be increased. This network of connotations is very important in improving the talent of communication.
People think with the help of frames of concepts. For instance, there is a mental frame of Lincoln in an American’s mind, and inside the frame are full of information piles. As an example, pronoun “he” is used when he’s mentioned for that he’s male, he was the sixteenth president, he was assassinated and killed, etc. These piles of information differ accordingly with experiences. The frames in a new student’s mind are not full at the beginning. Then, as the experiences increase, the frames get filled. These frames are not in an order as one after the other, but they are in a complex network. This complex network, formed by the frames of concepts in relationships, plays a great role in comprehending the multi-directional and delicate meanings in texts.
b. Record the words and their meanings on a cassette and listen to them.
c. Write the difficult words in another color so that it draws your attention.
d. One of the biggest problems of vocabulary is memorizing the abstract words. Therefore, start with the concrete ones.
e. Make use of the words borrowed from the target language. (e.g. system, method, information etc.). But be careful with the change of meaning on some words.
f. Try to remember the words with the resemblance of the sounds with your native language.
g. Memorize the words dividing them into classes. (e. g. colors, fruits, vegetables, etc.)
h. The connotations increase if you memorize the words that are similar in written forms together. (e.g. stationary - stationery)
i. You can use some mnemonics while memorizing words. E.g. in the above-mentioned example, “stationary” is an adjective. The only difference between the two words is on the last third letter. The one with this last third letter “a” is the adjective. (That is “stationary”)
j. Words starting with the same letters (or sounds) can be memorized together (e.g. when, which, who, where, what, etc.)
k. Remembering becomes easy if a relationship is established between the word and its physical attributes such as color, sound, smell, etc. (E.g. fruits)
l. Some other relationships such as the words and their functions are also useful. (E.g. furniture that is used for sitting, sleeping, etc.)
m. Memorizing the words with their pronunciation makes remembering easy.
n. Words with the same roots can be memorized together. (E.g. white, whiten, whitish)
o. Connections between the words and the texts can be established.
p. Practicing on texts with some words excluded, guessing the words not written or written partly are also good study for learning the words in context.
The elements causing connotations between words can be ordered as:
a. Synonyms (e.g. flower = blossom)
b. Antonyms (e.g. wet X dry)
c. Classifying as sub-groups (plant > rose)
d. Classifying as upper-groups (spinach < vegetable)
Or: Some other links may be organized between a word against two words.
giving X receiving = taking
old X new = young
good X bad = poor
Elements helpful for guessing the meanings from the context are:
a. Title: Calls up the words related to the subject since it determines the subject
b. Repetition: It is easy to guess the meaning of the word that is repeated in different sentences.
c. Logical correlation: To guess the meaning of a word you can look for logical correlations such as the cause and result relations of the word with the other words.
d. Definitions
e. Examples
f. Similarities
g. Synonym and antonyms
h. Summary: The summary of a text may have clues about meanings of words since it’s a repetition in a sense.
2. Pronunciation
a. Repeat a word carefully after hearing it.
b. Record your own voice on a cassette and compare it with a native speaker.
c. Try to say a sound first on its own, then in words or even in tongue twisters.
d. Make a list of “difficult” words for you and study them more carefully.
e. Choose a dictionary and try to get familiar with its transcription system.
3. Grammar
a. Decide on which areas are you successful at, such as changing the tenses of sentences, filling in the blanks, translations, answering the questions, writing a composition etc.
b. Use the tenses not in different sentences but in the same one.
c. Make sure if you are good at oral or written exercises.
d. Decide if an exercise is more useful with rules given beforehand or after.
e. You can notice the exceptions if you put every new grammar rule into an empty grammar table in an orderly fashion. Do not forget to add extra information for unclear points while repeating.
Basic Skills
1. Listening
One learns to understand and speak the target language imitating and listening to a native speaker. Listening to the target language not only improves your reasoning but also helps your pronunciation and speaking.
Choose the listening material according to your aim. If you have started recently you may improve your memory by listening to the cassettes of a text and your pronunciation by repeating what you listen to. Further on, you may increase your perception, grammar and vocabulary by listening to cassettes of conferences, stories and interviews.
The obstacles while listening to something in the target language are:
a. Not being able to remember the long texts
b. Fast speaking of native speakers
c. Unknown vocabulary
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